Influencing factors of consumer complaint behaviour in Malaysia

Influencing factors of consumer complaint behaviour in Malaysia INTRODUCTION If consumers experience dissatisfaction with products or services and are unable to obtain satisfaction from sellers or manufacturers, they may turn for help to a variety of consumer complaint agencies. Therefore, a third party can be the next step for consumers to improve their satisfaction if they still dissatisfied with the companys response. Few consumers actually complain directly to the manufacturer or service provider, so businesses may be unaware of consumer complaint actions (Day, Grabicke, Schaetzel, and Stauchbach, 1981; Stephens and Gwinner 1998). Franklin (1992) believes that consumer complaints is correlated with demands for more government regulation and intervention in the market place. From a managerial perspective, complaints represent potentially valuable information in guiding marketing strategy. Further, from a public policy perspective, complaints may aid the development and targeting of consumer protection and market regulatory programmes (Fornell and Westbrook , 1979). Hence, complaints can provide an alert to the distribution channel of the government regulation that needs correction in the business, and gives the company an opportunity to convince the customer to continue patronising their stores and buying their products. Thus, in the market place, effective complaint management must be a priority for every business, as the complaining behaviour provides companies with a chance to remedy the dissatisfaction and, ultimately, to retain loyal customers (Franklin, 1992; Davidow and Dacin, 1997). Balasubramaniam (1984) suggests that consumer protection may comprise polices and actions involving government intervention to ensure that all consumers obtain what they really want. The increasing demand for consumer protection is a modern phenomenon, and efforts are being made by governments to obtain greater enforcement from laws, however, these laws are not considered as particularly helpful to consumers for matters pertaining to trade descriptions (Financial services, housing, food, etc), door-to-door sales, distance selling, and safety of particular product; consumers should be provided more protection by statutes (Rachagan, 1998). Thus, several Asian countries, including Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Papua-New Guinea, have enacted statutes specifically titled as Consumer Protection Acts/Codes for consumers to solve specific problems. Most research on consumer complaint behaviour is conducted in the U.S. (e.g. Bearden and Mason, 1984; Day, 198 4; Davidow and Dacin, 1997), Canada (e.g. Barnes and Kelloway, 1980; Lau and Ng, 2001), and European countries such as Norway (e.g. Gronhaug and Arndt, 1980), the Netherlands (Morel, Poiesz and Wilke, 1997) and the U.K. (Crosier and Erdogan, 2001). Based on the different cultural settings, complaint issues in Asian countries are insufficient (e.g. Phau and Sari, 2004; Keng, Richmond and Han, 1995; Lau and Ng, 2001). Thus, to understand complaint behaviour and consumer orientation in the marketing system of Asian consumers is extremely important for their survival. Based on previous studies, this report provides a basic framework for seeking redress to show the main determinant factors that influence the ultimate decision to complain to the firms, third party agencies and take court action through the intention variable. The purpose of this study is to investigate the motivation for seeking redress from the firms and the third party complaint process, especially from the Malaysian consumers perspective. LITERATURE REVIEW In fact, the intention can change over time based on the individuals provisional nature. Human behaviour can be considered under volitional control since the individual is prepared to exert maximum effort. Thus, intention can affect human actions, and the relation between intention and action can be seen as the goals and plans that guide behaviour (Ajzen, 1985). Singh (1988) proposes a two-stage strategy explaining that consumers usually engage in multiple complaint behaviour. The first step is consumer complaint intentions. He reports the unique dimensions that support consumer complaint behaviour responses due to the relative intensity of the different consumer complaint behaviour options (i.e. intentions). It should not simply be based on the behaviour that they did/did not engage in. In the second step, consumer complaint behaviour is explained as consumers taking action for their dissatisfaction for an independent situation. Kim, Kim, Im and Shin (2003) also argue that consumer complaint intention is an outcome of the consumers attitude perspectives, rather than complaint behaviour, as they noted that intention is much better predicted and explained by attitude than behaviour. Thus, complaint intention plays the mediating role to explain the consumers attitude and complaint action in this study. According to the previous studies, the current study attempts to investigate how the variables, such as the knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies, perception of business practices and responsiveness to complaints and the importance of the product, influence the complaint intention and complaint action. Knowledge of Consumer Rights and Consumer Agencies Referring to social behaviour, Ajzen (1985) suggests that information that is recognized by the individuals will ultimately influence their further behaviour; Ormrod (1999) proposes that reinforcement responses only increase while the learner is aware of the connection. Singh and Wilkes (1996) suggest that an individuals learning about mechanisms and options of complaining affect consumer complaint behaviour, such as knowledge of unfair practices, consumer rights, and complaint channels. Agbonifoh and Edoreh (1986) argue that market imperfections are one of the market factors that make consumers feel helpless when they face discontent. Hence, consumer protection is one of the reactions to change the consumers helplessness. Guiding the consumers to enjoy their rights and the awareness of the existence of regulations and provisions becomes important when they encounter frustration or depression about the dissatisfied products or services (Agbonfoh and Edoreh, 1986). Thus, awareness of consumers rights and consumer protection agencies is important for consumers making the decision to redress their dissatisfaction to firms or third party. Moyer (1985) found that complainers with relatively good information concerning their consumer rights and who are more aware of possible help from third parties are more active in seeking information and more likely to express their dissatisfaction to sellers. Day (1984) suggests that consumers knowledge about where to complain affects the consumers complaint behaviour. Based on Haefner and Leckenby (1975), and Tipper (1997), in the current study, knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies is defined as the individual awareness and understanding of consumer rights and consumer protection agencies in Malaysia. An individuals knowledge or information is the basis for influence on human behaviour (Ajzen, 1985). Day and Landon (1976) suggest that consumers who are less knowledgeable will rarely seek redress for their discontent with products or services. Moyer (1985) found that complainers who seek more information and have more interest in the consumer protection laws are more active in expressing their dissatisfaction to sellers. Tipper (1997) found that knowledge of consumer rights has a significant positive influence on third party redress. It can be viewed that American consumers with more knowledge about consumer rights are more inclined to utilize federal agencies and legal action as their third party redress options than other consumers. Ajzen (1985, 1991) suggests that intention can be used as a mediating variable between the information variable and specific action. Referring to the limited previous literature, the hypotheses on knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies wit h complaint behaviour can be stated as follows: Hypothesis 1a: Consumers with more knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies are more likely to have high complaint intention. Hypothesis 1b: Consumers with more knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies are more likely to take complaint action. Hypothesis 1c: Complaint intention will mediate the relationship between knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies and complaint action. Perception of Business Practices and Responsiveness to Complaint Keng, Richmond and Han (1995) determine that market factors should influence consumer complaint behaviour, such as a businesss reputation for quality and service, and the responsiveness of the business to complaints. Moyer (1985) found that complainers hold negative expectations concerning an organizations responsiveness to their complaints, they feel that third party actions are on behalf of the consumer. Granbois, Summers and Frazier (1977) delineate that consumers perception about a firms willingness to provide redress has the most significant correlation with complaint behaviour. Jacoby and Jaccard (1981) discuss that marketing channel factors affect consumer complaint behaviour. Richins (1982) points out that the efficacy of complaining and the retailers willingness to solve complaints can be a major factor in consumers complaint behaviour. If the customer responsiveness or firm-related failure from firms or business causes the individual dissatisfaction, consumers are more like ly to tell others about their unhappiness since they tend to perceive the firm to be at fault, and consumers may feel angry and desire to hurt the firms business (Lau and Ng, 2001). Crie (2003) suggests that buyers and sellers interaction frequency plays a part in the preference for verbal complaint action. Based on the previous literature review, the reputation of the business practice and the retailers willingness to address complaints causes consumers dissatisfaction and may influence the consumers complaint behaviour (Richins, 1982; Keng, et al., 1995; Phau and Sari, 2004; Lau and Ng, 2001; Crie, 2003; Liu and McClure, 2001; Weiser, 1995). In the current study, perception of business practices and responsiveness to complaints can be defined as the consumers perception about firms practices and firms responsiveness to their complaint (Keng, et al., 1995). To examine the complaint intention, Richins (1982) found that if consumers perceive that a business is willing to remedy the complaint they are more likely to make a complaint, they feel that complaining is worth the effort. Regarding predicting complaint action from business practices and responsiveness to complaints, Richins (1982) found that if complainers believe that business responsiveness is low, they are more likely to take complaint action. Phau and Sari (2004) found that Indonesian complainers have a negative perception concerning business practice and responsiveness to complaint. Referring to third party complaint actions, Tipper (1997) found that American consumers with a negative feeling about business practice and responsiveness to complaint are more likely to address their complaint to the Better Business Bureau, Consumer Agency, State Attorney Generals Office, Federal Agency and take legal action. Ajzen (1985, 1991) suggests that intention can be used as a mediating v ariable between the attitudinal (perceivable) variable and specific action. Thus, the hypothesis in this study proposes that: Hypothesis 2a: Consumers with a positive perception of business practice and responsiveness to complaint will be more likely to have high complaint intention. Hypothesis 2b: Consumers with a negative perception of business practice and responsiveness to complaint will be more likely to take complaint action. Hypothesis 2c: Complaint intention will mediate the relationship between the perception of business practice and responsiveness to complaint and complaint action. Importance of Product Generally, consumers tend to perceive that high quality products or services have a high price and if the quality of the product or service is below their expectation they will be discontent. Day (1977) suggests that the higher the price of the products or services, the higher the expectation will be performed, and luxury products can influence the consumers status. Keng, et al. (1995) define the consumers perception of the importance of the product as the price of the product, how socially visible the product is, and the durability and frequency of using the product, all of which may influence complaint behaviour. Therefore, the importance of the product can affect consumer complaint behaviour (Keng, et al., 1995; Phau and Sari, 2004). In the present study, the importance of the product can be defined as the price of product, used frequently, socially visible and used for a long period. Day (1977) found that if the actual performance of the product or service dilutes the consumers status, they will be more likely to make a complaint. Jacoby and Jaccard (1981) argue that consumers with higher information regarding their dissatisfaction are more likely to take complaint action. Phau and Sari (2004) found that products that reflect the consumers status, or are used frequently, or over a long period of time, and expensive unsatisfactory products, affect the consumers complaint action for Indonesian consumers. Keng, et al. (1995) found that if the price of the product is high, the more socially visible the product, or the quality of the product is defective, consumers are more likely to take complaint action. Ajzen (1985, 1991) suggests that intention can be used as a mediating variable between the attitudinal (perceivable) variable and specific action. Thus, the hypothesis is stated as the following in the current study: Hypothesis 3a: Consumers with a perception that the unsatisfactory product is expensive, is used frequently, seen by others and is used for a long period of time, are more likely to have high complaint intention. Hypothesis 3b: Consumers with a perception that the product is expensive, is used frequently, seen by others and is used for a long period of time, are more likely to take complaint action. Hypothesis 3c: Complaint intention will mediate the relationship between the importance of the product and complaint action. Complaint Intention and Complaint Action In both the TRA (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and TPB (Ajzen, 1991) models, the intention construct is considered as the mediation role between the beliefs and the behaviour. Godin and Kok (1996) define the intention as the expressed motivation to perform some behaviour or achieve some goal (p. 94). Ajzen (1991) suggests that intention can be referred to the amount of effort a person exerts to engage in actual behaviour. Ajzen and Driver (1992) argue that intention can be assumed to capture the motivational factors that influence behaviour, it is indications of how hard people are willing to try, of how much of an effort they are planning to exert, in order to perform the behaviour (p. 208). Hence, the more an individual intends to carry out, the more likely he or she will do. Ajzen (2001) suggests that intention plays an important role in guiding human action and it can perform a goal-directed behaviour in a specific context (p. 47). Ajzen and Driver, (1992) suggest strong intentions of individuals to engage in behaviour or to achieve their behavioural goals. Hurbes and Ajzen (2001) found that intention contributes significantly and gives a positive prediction of hunting behaviour. Singh (1988) found that consumers with private and third party complaint intention are actually more engaged in private and third party actions. Richins (1982) also suggests that a propensity to complain is significantly related with actual behaviour. Therefore, the stronger intentions from consumers to engage in complaint actions, the more successful they are predicted. The proposition between complaint intention and complaint actions shows as following: Hypothesis 4: Consumers with a higher intention of seeking redress for complaining are more likely to take action on their complaints. In accordance with previous studies, this study prefers to treat each factor as separate concepts that can influence the consumers intention and actions in the research framework (see Figure 1). H3b H2b H1b H3a H2a H1a H4 H1c / H2c / H3c Importance Of Product Complaint Intention Complaint Action Perception on Business Practices and Responsiveness to complaint Knowledge of Consumer Rights and Consumer AgenciesFigure 1: The Research Framework METHODS OF THE STUDY The data in this research was collected by a survey involving self-administered questionnaires. The population and sample were Malaysian citizens residing in Kuala Lumpur, Peninsular Malaysia. To provide an adequate level of confidence, this present research used 700 as the target sample size. In order to capture this targeted sample size of respondents, 1,200 respondents in three shopping malls, the Tribunal for Consumer Claims in Kuala Lumpur and the National Consumer Complaints Centre were intercepted and requested to participate in the study from February 2007 to the end of April 2007. Finally, a total of 834 survey questionnaires were found to be usable in this study. The constructs used in the questionnaire were derived from previous research based on the literature review. The questionnaires were produced in three languages English, Chinese and Malay. The final research questionnaire consisted of four parts. The first part included 7 statements to measure the knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies variables, which were adapted from Haefner and Leckenby (1975), and Tipper (1997). A 7 point Likert-scale from 1 = very poor to 7 = excellent were used in this section. The next section concerned 10 statements on the respondents perception of business practice and responsiveness to the complaint variable, which were adopted from Kim, et al. (2003) and 4 statements on the importance of product variable, which were adopted from Phau and Sari (2004). Seven point Likert-scales from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree were used in the second part. Another 10 statements of the complaint actions that consumers intended to take were adopte d from Singh (1988). Seven point Likert-scales from 1 = very unlikely to 7 = very likely were used to measure the complaint intention variable in part three. The last part included 5 statements which measured the complaint actions that consumers had taken (Yes/No) by using the Guttman scale, this variable was adopted from Singh (1988). FINDINGS OF THE STUDY As discussed in the study of Garver and Mentzer (1999), the Structural Equation Model (SEM) is a powerful technique that combines the measurement model (confirmatory factor analysis) and the structural model (path analysis) into a simultaneous statistical test and provides a measurement theory and a structural theory (Hair, et al., 2006). In this report, the SEM was used as the main statistical analysis tool to purify the measurement items and AMOS 5.0 was used for testing the hypothesis relationship. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) According to Anderson and Gerbing (1988), and Hair, et al. (2006), the first assessment should be any structural model that exists with an acceptable goodness-of-fit. Thus, it could begin by fitting a CFA model that includes covariance between all pairs of latent factors. In this paper, the overall fit for the base measurement model were poor GFI=0.886, AGFI=0.861, TLI=0.873, CFI=0.884, RMSEA=0.057 and CMIN/DF=2.693. In order to improve the model fit indices, items PBR4, PBR7, KNLEG2, KNLEG3, and KNLEG4 were deleted from the base model due to the lower factor loading and high modification indices. After deletion, the overall fit for final the measurement model in the calibration sample was excellent, with GFI=0.928, AGFI=0.913, TLI=0.917, CFI=0.927, RMSEA=0.045 and CMIN/DF=2.693. Testing the Hypotheses Once an acceptable measurement model is available, the structural model evaluation should be able to start. The results of the structural model show that the model achieved a good level of fit, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2 = 902.067, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ 2 / df = 2.693, GFI = 0.928, AGFI = 0.913, TLI = 0.917, CFI = 0.927, RMSEA = 0.045. The result also reported that 13.6 per cent of the variance associated with complaint intention was accounted for by its three predictors: knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies, perception on business practices and responsiveness to complaint and importance of product. Accordingly, it was determined that 35.3 percent of the variation in complaint action was accounted for by its four predictors including complaint intention. Testing the Hypotheses on the Complaint Intention Examining the relationship between the independent variables and the complaint intention, Hypothesis 1a, (see Table 1) regarding the knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies on the complaint intention, was supported (P = 0.000, ÃŽÂ ² = 0.295). It explained that if consumers with more knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies, they would be more likely to make complaints. This result approved the suggestion from Day and Landon (1976). The result did not support Hypothesis 2a (see Table 1) about the perception on business practices and responsiveness to complaint (p = 0.370, ÃŽÂ ² = 0.039). This means that consumers perception on business practices and responsiveness to complaints has no significant relationship with the complaint intention. This result was consistent with the study of Halstead and Droge (1991). Referring to Hypothesis 3a (see Table 1), the results show that the importance of product significantly influences the complaint intention (p = 0.000; ÃŽÂ ² = 0.219). This result indicates that if consumers perceive that the product is expensive, is used frequently, is seen by others and is used for a long period of time, they are more likely to intend to make a complaint. This result is proved in the study of Day (1977). Table 1: Hypotheses Test on Complaint Intention ÃŽÂ ² S.E C.R. P Support H1a CI KNLEG 0.295 0.018 5.715 0.000* Yes H2a CI PBR 0.039 0.071 0.897 0.370 No H3a CI IP 0.219 0.032 3.429 0.000* Yes *: p Testing the Hypotheses on the Complaint Action To test the hypotheses on the complaint action, Hypothesis 1b (see Table 2), regarding the knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies on the complaint actions, was supported (p = 0.000, ÃŽÂ ² = 125). It could be explained that consumers with more knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies are more likely to take complaint action. Referring to hypothesis 2b (see Table 2), the perception on business practices and responsiveness to complaint showed a negative marginally influence on the complaint action due to p = 0.000, ÃŽÂ ² = -0.063. This result is consistent with the findings from Richins (1982) and Tipper (1997). It could be explained that Malaysian consumers with a negative feeling about business practice and responsiveness to complaint are more likely to take complaint action against the firms or the third party. Testing hypothesis 3b (see Table 2), the importance of product showed a negative significant relationship with complaint action to the firms or the third parties (p = 0.000, ÃŽÂ ² = -0.211). This result does not support the hypothesis due to the negative relationship between the importance of product and the complaint action. Regarding the relationship between complaint intention and complaint action, the results (see Table 2) support hypothesis 4 (p = 0.000; ÃŽÂ ² = 0.552). This means that once the complainers have a strong intention to seek redress, they will definitely take action to get further satisfaction on their dissatisfied products or services from the third parties or the businesses. These results confirm the suggestion of Ajzen (1985, 1991) and Singh (1988). Table 2: Hypothesis Test on Complaint Action ÃŽÂ ² S.E. C.R. P Support H1b CA KNLEG 0.125 0.008 2.980 0.003* Yes H2b CA PBR -0.063 0.029 -1.829 0.067m Yes H3b CA IP -0.211 0.012 -4.575 0.000* No H4 CA CI 0.552 0.041 6.883 0.000* Yes *: p m: marginally significant Testing Hypotheses on Mediating Effect A mediating effect is created when a third variable/construct intervenes between two other related constructs that explain how or why each predictor variable influences the criterion. Testing the mediation effects, Hair et al. (2006) suggest that if the indirect effect of the variable is higher than 0.08, it indicates a mediating effect. If the p-value of the independent variable and mediating variable, mediating variable and dependent variable, independent variable and dependent variable, are significant, partial mediation will be proved; if the p-values of the independent variable and mediating variable, mediating variable and dependent variable, are significant, full mediation will be proved. Table 3 shows the hypotheses on the mediation effect in this study. Regarding Hypothesis 1c, the finding in Table 3 shows that the indirect effect of the knowledge of consumer rights and complaint agencies on the complaint actions was 0.163, which was higher than 0.08, and the p-value for knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies and complaint intention, complaint intention and complaint action, knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies and complaint action were all significant. Thus, complaint intention fully mediated the relationship between the knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies and the complaint action. Following the same procedure, the indirect effect of the perception on business practices and responsiveness to complaint showed 0.022 ( Table 3: Direct and Indirect Effect on the Mediation Variable Direct Effect Indirect Effect Total Effect Hypothesis Supported Type of Mediation H1c: KNLEGà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢CA 0.125 0.163 0.288 Yes Partial Mediation H2c: PBRà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢CA -0.063 0.022 -0.041 No H3c: IPà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢CA -0.211 0.121 -0.090 Yes Full Mediation DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS Most previous studies in the consumer complaint behaviour have focused on the two-group typology, which consists of complainers and non-complainers (Kim, Kim, Im and Shin, 2003, Keng, et al., 1995; Phau and Sari, 2004). This study offers a broader classification, which is consumers making complaints to the firms and third parties. The framework in the present paper has provided valuable information concerning the consumers motivation for seeking redress based on the consumers understanding of consumer rights and consumer protection, market factor and importance of product or services and level of dissatisfaction. Hopefully, the development of this model provides a basis for future research on exploring consumer complaint behaviour. Although a third party complaint agency is one approach to assist organizations handling the dissatisfaction with consumers together, it is unfortunate that many organizations never realize the importance of complaint handling. Consequently, for improving a complaint handling management programme, business, policy makers in governments and consumer organizations must understand how these factors influence complaint behaviour, and develop strategies for influencing variables and complaint behaviour as follows. According to the knowledge of consumer rights and consumer agencies, it contributed an important value to predict consumer complaint behaviour. The practical implication for policy makers in governments or consumer organisations is that they should provide more approaches to educate consumers about their rights and responsibilities as consumer education concerns the necessary skills, attitudes, knowledge and understanding to become an effective consumer (Brennan and Ritters, 2004). This education can help consumers to obtain the skills and knowledge needed to make adjustments to their choices and improve the consumers confidence to take action in their life. Thus, consumer education along with effective regulations and access to good quality advice and information from government or consumer organisations are essential components against the irresponsibility or unethical business in the marketplace. Referring to the market factor, the results show that consumers perception of business practice and responsiveness to complaints is not an important factor in examining the complaint action. Thus, as business managers and executives, they should realize the importance of complaint handling. Organizations can educate consumers by focusing the complaint process on removing the fear of confrontation and intimidation factors. Firms can offer some compensation to the disgruntled consumer and should not complain about the extra effort or cost involved, and consider each customer as a prospective buyer when they make a complaint. For consumers who perceive a higher cost of complaining when they are unable to contact the organization, the company can offer a generic booklet that is distributed to consumers explaining how to effectively get in touch with the organizations to increase consumer confidence and purchase intention (TARP, 1986). Businesses may encourage consumers to make a complain t by adopting strategies that shift the blame away from the consumers, such as by replacing the product or service with which they are dissatisfied for free. Therefore, the way of complaint handling can develop a good image for the firms and help enhance marketing effectiveness in the long run. Keng, Richmond and Han (1995) found that complainers are more likely to resort to complaint action if the price of the product is high or the quality of the product is defective than the non-complainers. This research found that consumers intended to making complaints if they feel dissatisfied with the product or the product was expensive, was used frequently, seen by others and was used for a long period of time. Thus, the firms should pay special attention to complaints concerning expensive durable products; the seller should be trained to handle complaints well, and the firm should not raise consumers

The Divine Comedy vs. Paradise Lost Essays -- essays research papers

Full Circle – from Sin to Salvation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Great works of literature have been written throughout history. However, The Divine Comedy and Paradise Lost have the inept ability to stir the soul and cause a person to examine and re-examine their life. The brilliant descriptions, use of imagery, metaphor and simile give a person a vivid picture of the creation of man and the possibilities for life in the hereafter. This is done, as a person is able to see, full circle, from the beginning of time to the end of time, the consequences of turning away from God. The ability to see a life full circle is apparent through the examination of both of these poems. Although written many years ago, the morals and principles that they convey ring very true for people in this century as well as times yet to come. The Divine Comedy, written in the 14th century by Dante Alighieri, is a heroic epic. Throughout Dante’s literary work, he outlines his scientific understandings of the world, his political views and provides the reader with a moral compass and spiritual map of which to follow. This poem is written in three parts, Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradisio, each of which is broken down into individual cantos. Inferno includes 34 cantos, whereas Purgatrio and Paradiso each contain 33 cantos, however, the first canto of Inferno is really an introduction to the poem. The primary characters in Dante’s poem include himself, who is also the narrator, Virgil, a poet he has admired, who serves as his guide through most of the first two sections, and finally, Beatrice, his inspiration, who greets him at Paradisio and escorts him through the remainder of his journey. Dante experiences a vision, at the age of 35, after experiencing traumatic events in his hometown of Florence. The events that are occurring in Florence at the time are associated with papal corruption and cause Dante to be forced into exile. Following the vision, which confirms to Dante that he has strayed from the right path in life, Dante begins his travel through the three realms, which contain the possible consequences following a person’s death. Dante’s journey begins on Good Friday, when he is escorted to the gates of Hell, moves to Purgatory and ends in Heaven. However, an escort accompanies him for duration of his journey. Virgil, who Dante has long admired, escorts Dante through Hell and... ...or not to obey the Father in the partaking of the fruit. Faith becomes a common theme through questions that are answered within the poems. Raphael answers Adam and reveals the meaning and importance of faith. The same thing occurs in Dante’s poem when St. Peter gives him information. In Milton’s poem we see and feel that the character of Eve is somehow not as important as the character of Adam. This is evident in the way Adam is consulted while Eve is left to herself in times of important conversations. In Book eight, Adam says that Eve is â€Å"th’ inferior, in the mind and inward faculties.† (Paradise Lost, book 8, line 317-318) Eve is a submissive character in Paradise Lost. On the other hand, Beatrice, in Dante’s The Divine Comedy, is a strong character and leads Dante. The use of numbers is very important in Dante’s poem as the number three reveals itself several times as well as the number seven. This is not a characteristic found in Paradise Lost. Both poems inspire their reader to look at their own life. In addition, they treat the reader to a full serving of historic literature that not only entertains, but also teaches valuable lesson in the form of morals and principles.

Deforestation Extinction Of Species Conclusion Essay

Deforestation Tropical forests include dense rainforests, where rainfall is abundant year-round; seasonally moist forests, where rainfall is abundant, but seasonal; and drier, more open woodlands. Tropical forests of all varieties are disappearing rapidly as humans clear the natural landscape for construction, to build roads and urban areas and make room farms and pastures (Lindsey, 2007). Although deforestation meets some of the human needs, it also has profound, sometimes devastating, consequences, including extinction of flora and fauna, social conflict, and climate change, challenges that are not just local, but global. At the current rate of deforestation, the world’s rain forest may completely vanish in the next century (Lindsey, 2007). Jungle burned for agriculture in southern Mexico. (By Jami Dwyer via Wikimedia Commons) Deforestation has many negative effects on the environment. The most dramatic impact is a loss of habitat for millions of species. Seventy percent of Earth’s land animals and plants live in forests, and many cannot survive the deforestation that destroys their homes (National Geographic, 2015). The forests are the home to a large number of animals; trees are also an important component of the water cycle (Bose, 2012). The roots of trees hold the soil together and prevent soil erosion. Deforestation at such alarming rate has been a cause of constant worries for environmentalists the world over (Bose, 2012). In some developing countries, massive deforestation is on-going and shaping climate and geography (Science daily, 2015). Deforestation may lead to a lot of causes, ranging from slow forest degradation to sudden and catastrophic wildfires. Deforestation results from removal of trees without sufficient reforestation; however, even with reforestation, significant biodiversity loss may occur Moreover, deforestation also alters the hydrologic cycle, the moisture in the atmosphere and the amount of water in the soil and groundwater (Science daily, 2015). Deforestation in indigenous territories by loggers, colonizers, and refugees has sometimes triggered violent conflict (Lindsey, 2007). Forest preservation can be socially divisive, as well. International and national governments and aid agencies struggle with questions about what level of human presence, if any, is compatible with conservation goals in tropical forests, how to balance the needs of indigenous peoples with expanding rural populations and national economic development, and whether establishing large, pristine, uninhabited protected areas—even if that means removing current residents—should be the highest priority of conservation efforts in tropical forests (Lindsey, 2007). There are a few reasons which cause deforestation; one of the biggest drivers of deforestation is conversion to cropland and pasture, mostly for subsistence, which is growing crops or raising livestock to meet daily needs. Farmers cut forests to provide more spaces for grazing livestock and planting crops. The conversion to agricultural land usually results from multiple direct factors. For instance, countries build roads and railway expansion into remote areas to improve overland transportation of goods. The road development itself causes a limited amount of deforestation (Lindsey, 2007). When loggers have harvested an area’s valuable timber, they will continue to harvest more. The roads and the logged areas become a magnet for settlers, farmers and ranchers who slash and burn the remaining forest for cropland or cattle pasture, completing the deforestation chain that began with road building (Lindsey, 2007). In other cases, forests that have been degraded by logging become fire-prone and are eventually deforested by repeated accidental fires from adjacent farms or pastures (Lindsey, 2007). Wildfires and slash and burn agriculture release carbon dioxide that would otherwise be stored in the forest biomass into the atmosphere. Forest regrowth and crops recapture some carbon, but overall, deforestation is a source of atmospheric carbon dioxide and therefore a contributor to global warming. In the Amazon alone, scientists estimate that the trees contain more carbon than 10 years’ worth of human-produced greenhouse gases (Lindsey, 2007). When people clear the forests, usually with fire, carbon stored in the wood returns back to the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect and global warming. Once the forest is cleared for crop or grazing  land, the soils can become a large source of carbon emissions. In places such as Indonesia, the soils of swampy lowland forests are rich in partially decayed organic matter, known as peat (Lindsey, 2007). During extended droughts, such as during El Nià ±o events (large-scale ocean-atmosphere climate interaction linked to a periodic warming in sea surface temperatures across the central and east-central Equatorial Pacific), (National Ocean Service, 2014) the forests and the peat become flammable, especially if they have been degraded by logging or accidental fire. When they burn, they release huge volumes of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (Lindsey, 2007). It is not certain whether intact tropical forests are a net source or sink of carbon. Certainly, the trunks of trees are a large, stable pool of carbon that grows as forests mature or regenerate on previously cleared land. But trees, plants, and microorganisms in the soil also respire, releasing carbon dioxide as they break down carbohydrates for energy. In the Amazon, huge volumes of carbon dioxide escape from decaying leaves and other organic matter in rivers and streams that flood large areas of forest during the rainy season (Lindsey, 2007). Extinction of Species The variety and interdependence of all living things has led to the evolution of world. Man has been killing animals’ right since the time he acquired the skill of hunting (Bose, 2012). Although in those times, hunting was the means for survival, human beings continued to kill animals even after they had learned to cultivate crops. The relentless hunting by human beings, sometimes for the hide of a cheetah or the tusks of the elephants, or simply to cook the tasty shark fin soup, has wiped out the existence of a large number of animals in just a century (Bose, 2012). Besides hunting, human activities like deforestation and environmental pollution has led to the extinction of a large number of animals and plants due to loss of their habitats. Since prehistoric times, humans have used the earth’s resources to enrich their own lives. However, there is a point when the resources are being  overexploited, and this exploitation begins to threaten the existence of other species. Over exploitation presents itself in many forms: exhausting a species as a supply of food or hunting a species for trophies, clothing, medicine or souvenir. In the aquatic biomes, overfishing is a worldwide manifestation of over-exploitation (Hogan, 2014). In the case of terrestrial ecosystems, overgrazing and intensive cropping systems are the chief elements of over-exploitation. Hunting for trophy or medicinal extracts comprises smaller biomass destruction, but is specifically targeted at some of the most threatened fauna of the planet (Hogan, 2014). These practices are generally overtly mercenary, rather than being motivated by subsistence or hunger, as most of the farming exploitation. For example, tigers have been an integral part of traditional Chinese medicine for over 1000 years and as such, they have been hunted to the brink of extinction as a product of the lucrative trade in tiger body parts (Hogan, 2014). Base on this picture, these are the modern biotic extracts store in Hong Kong, China. Certain of these products represent trade in organisms that are endangered species. http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150962/ Pollution is the introduction of potentially harmful chemical or physical constituents into the environment, which substances substantially harm individual species metabolisms, or which strongly and rapidly alter a stable historic ecosystem composition (Hogan, 2014). This introduction usually enters the atmosphere, soil or natural water systems of the Earth. Widespread air pollutants are sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen. Water and soil pollutants of concern are heavy metals and a large category of pesticide and herbicide compounds (Hogan, 2014). Chemical pollutants may interfere with metabolic functions, causing functional impairment or death of organisms. Reductions in species numbers anywhere within a given food chain, of course, have ramifications to other members of the ecosystem (Hogan, 2014). Pollution is often a contributing factor along with habitat degradation in extinction processes. Here are some species that have all gone extinct in the past two centuries. The Quagga (Equus quagga ssp. quagga) was a subspecies of the common plains  zebra and a native of South Africa. Known for its unique stripes, the Quagga was hunted for its hide and killed by ranchers who believed the animals competed with livestock for grazing area. The last known Quagga died at the Amsterdam Zoo in 1883 (Gerken, 2013). Known as Tasmanian tigers due to their stripes, thylacines (Thylacinus cynocephalus) were the largest modern carnivorous marsupial according to the Smithsonian Institution (Gerken, 2013). They once existed across the Australian continent, but their habitat had been reduced to the island of Tasmania by the time European settlers arrived (Gerken, 2013).Thylacines were believed to kill livestock and were often shot and trapped. They were a convenient scapegoat for poor financial returns and high stock losses at a time of rural depression in Tasmania according to the National Museum of Australia (Gerken, 2013). The Tecopa pupfish (Cyprinodon nevadensis calidae) was native to the Mojave desert in California and could survive in waters as warm as 108 degrees Fahrenheit (Gerken, 2013). Human development around the Tecopa Hot Springs in the mid-20th century and the channelling of two springs together left the habitat unsuitable for the small fish. The Tecopa pupfish became extinct by 1970 or soon after (Gerken, 2013). Conclusion â€Å"Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.†- Mahatma Gandhi. It is widely recognised that we are hugely overspending our current budget of natural resources. At the existing rates of exploitation, there is no way for the environment to recover in good time and save it for our future generation. Everything on our mother earth is interconnected, and while the nature supplies us with valuable environmental services. Without any of it, we cannot exist. We depend on each other’s action and the way we treat natural resources. We should adopt a holistic view of nature. It is not an entity that exists separately from us; we are an inalienable part of nature and we should care for it in the most appropriate manner. This is the only way we possibly solve the problem of environmental pollution. The only key to save our beloved Mother Earth has been wandering with us from the very beginning. It has been silently drifting, waiting for someone to discover its dominating power.

Sociology - Crime and Deviance Essay - 1682 Words

Crime and Deviance Crime is a set of rules and statutes that regulates the behaviours of a society, it is a behaviour or action that will put members of the public at risk of harm in one way or another be it a robbery or a violent attack. However, deviance is not necessarily breaking the law but it is in violation of the social norms. (Cliff Notes. 2009) But what is classed as criminal or deviant is dependent on certain factors. Crime, or what is perceived as criminal changes over time; what is considered a criminal act now may not have been seen as such in previous years, for example, recreational drugs such as cocaine were not illegal in the late nineteenth century but holds a hefty punishment for possession now. What is deemed to be†¦show more content†¦Hans Brunner’s study backs up the biological theory; he conducted a case study of the male members of a family in Holland each with different violent tendencies. One of which attempted to run his boss over in his car after an argument , another raped his sister and one forced his sister to undress in front of him. They all displayed retarded motor development, difficulties in task planning and awkward sexual behaviours. With further study Brunner found that all of them had a lack of serotonin, which he linked to the violent outbursts they had displayed. (Brunner, H. 1993) The main issue with this study is the sample, not only is it a limited sample but it is culture biased and gender biased as well due to the focus of the study being three Dutch males. This means that the findings cannot be generalised as they are specific to the bias and not large enough generalise wider. The biological theory of crime and deviance is a reliable theory as it can be measured accurately as it’s interest is in the chemical imbalances in the brain rather than what we cannot see or measure like the sociological theory. Another positive point for the theory is it explains the violent outbursts and can be treated to correct the imbalance in the brain with drugs to help adjust the levels of serotonin back to a normalShow MoreRelatedThe Sociology Of Crime And Deviance2467 Words   |  10 PagesThe sociology of crime and deviance is about rules, regulations and rule breakers. There are people that break rules and interest are shown to why they do so, while there are others that are seen and labelled rule breakers. The role of the media is to emphasise this ideas in hyperboles and install reactions to society. Societies today are media saturated and they are captivated with crime and it is the fundamental point of the news production. With less association with people’s lives and valuesRead Moresociology internationalist crime deviance1200 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿1c How do interactionists explain crime? (Labelling Theory) Are offenders different? Interactionists argue that a mistake most perspectives make is that they assume lawbreakers are somehow different from law-abiding people. The labelling theory suggests that most people commit deviant and criminal acts but only come are caught and stigmatised for it. It is for this reason that emphasis should be on understanding the reaction and definition of deviance rather than the causes of the initial actRead MoreThe Theoretical Approaches Of Sociology View Crime And Deviance1110 Words   |  5 Pages 17. Discuss the major differences in how the three theoretical approaches of Sociology view crime and deviance. Give examples of specific theories. The functionalist view in relation to deviance is a belief that anyone can be convicted of a crime. Everyone is treated equal in the eyes of law. For example, a celebrity and a homeless man could both be convicted for the same crime. Both would be tried the same, with equal consequences. 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For exampleRead More How Crime and Deviance Can Be Seen As Functional for Society1723 Words   |  7 Pages Crime and deviance are acts that will elicit dissent from society. They take various forms and involve various concepts and theories. It will be the aim of this paper to explore those that are considered to be functional for society. It was Emile Durkheim who first clearly established the logic behind the functional approach to the study of crime and deviance[1] when he wrote The Rules of Sociological Method and The Division of Labour[2]. In those works, DurkheimRead MoreEssay about Social Deviance1286 Words   |  6 PagesSocial Deviance Social deviance is a term that refers to forms of behavior and qualities of persons that others in society devalue and discredit. So what exactly is deviance? In this essay we are concerned with social deviance, not physiological deviations from the expected norm. 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